[#Lexi#]

1. Lexicology (from Gr lexis ‘word’ and logos ‘learning’) is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of the language and the properties of words as the main units of language. The term v o c a b u l ar y is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words and word equivalents that the language possesses.
The object of Lexicology is a words-stock (vocabulary) of the particularly language. The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.
Task of lexicology– 1. Is to give systematic description of the English vocabulary, its etymological peculiar features and its classifications. 2. to study the rules of enriching the vocabulary
Lexicology as a part of general linguistics is divided into several branches that study different aspects of words, word-combination and the vocabulary:
 The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific features of any particular language, is known as general lexicology.
 Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred to as language universals. Special lexicology devotes its attention to the description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language. It goes without saying that every special lexicology is based on the principles of general lexicology, and the latter forms a part of general linguistics.
 Historical lexicology (etymology) – studies the evolution of separate words and the vocabulary in general. The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements, forms the object of historical lexicology or etymology. This branch of linguistics discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage. Historical lexicology has been criticised for its atomistic approach, i.e. for treating every word as an individual and isolated unit. This drawback is, however, not intrinsic to the science itself. Historical study of words is not necessarily atomistic. In the light of recent investigations it becomes clear that there is no reason why historical lexicology cannot survey the evolution of a vocabulary as an adaptive system, showing its change and development in the course of time.
 Descriptive lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. It studies the functions of words and their specific structure as a characteristic inherent in the system. The descriptive lexicology of the English language deals with the English word in its morphological and semantical structures, investigating the interdependence between these two aspects.
 Applied lexicology deals with translation, lexicography, pragmatics of speech.
Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics: phonetics, for example, investigates the phonetic structure of language & is concerned with the study of the outer sound-form of the word. Grammar is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words as well as with patterns after which words are combined into word-groups & sentences. There is also a close relationship between lexicology & stylistics, which is concerned with a study of a nature, functions & styles of languages.

2. Lexical system is a set of words and word combinations associating and functioning together according to certain laws. It is an adaptive system because it is constantly adjusting itself changes of the society.
Syntagmatic relations are linear sequence (линейная последовательность) relations of LU when they are used in speech (are possibilities of combinations). Can be presented as a horizontal line. They are important for determining the meaning of a poly-semantic word because different senses of poly-semantic words are revealed in the context (yellow dress — yellow press).
Context is the main stretch of speech which determines each individual sense of a poly-semantic word. Contexts are:
1. Linguistic. Lexical valence of the word — the lexical contexts that a word may be used in.
a. Lexical — includes LU combined with the poly-semantic word which helps to determine its senses or meaning (heavy box, heavy rain, heavy industry).
b. Grammatical — is the grammatical structure of the phrase that helps to determine the sense of a poly-semantic word (to make a cake, to make smb do smth, to make a splendid actress).
c. Semantic — is a common use of words in certain repeatedly used environment (to solve the problem, to identify the problem, a complicated problem).
2. Extra-linguistic — is constituted by the speech situation in which the word is used (I'll give you a ring — позвоню, подарю кольцо)
Paradigmatic relations — the relations of a word within the lexical system of a language (functional contrasts). It is the basis for semantic classifications of words.
1) The first classification is based on the common concept that a word expresses. Words are subdivided into lexical-semantic groups and lexical-semantic fields. Both are closely knit sectors or vocabulary-united by a common concept. But a L-S group consists of words belonging to one part of speech (red-blue-black; mother-father-sister; to walk-to run-to go) and a L-S field — may comprise words belonging to different parts of speech (field of space: in,out, space, room, to extend)
2) The second classification is based on hierarchal paradigmatic relations. There are more general words (Hyperonym) (tree) and more specific (Hyponymy) (tree, old tree, oak, pine-tree).
Words in language form lexical-grammatical groups united by hypero-hyponymic relations.
Hyponymy is the mostly widely spread relation among LU. It is found in various parts of speech (more often in nouns). The hypero-hyponymic relations rreflect the way we see the world, its arrangement.
The word may be described as the basic unit of language. Uniting meaning and form, it is composed of one or more morphemes, each consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation.
 Thomas Hobbes - words are not mere sounds but names of matter/a materialistic approach to the problem of nomination / universal signal that can substitute any other signal from the environment in evoking a response in a human organism- Pavlov
 E. Sapir - the syntactic and semantic aspects - the word “one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated ‘meaning’, into which the sentence resolves itself
 “the minimum sentence” by H. Sweet
 Bloomfield as “a minimum free form”
 The semantic-phonological approach - Gardiner’s definition: “A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its as-pect of denoting something which is spoken about."
 Meillet combines the semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria - A word is defined by the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment."
 some modifications, adding that a word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterised by positional mobility within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic integrity.
All these criteria are necessary because they permit us to create a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word and the phoneme, and the word and the morpheme: their common feature is that they are all units of the language, their difference lies in the fact that the phoneme is not significant, and a morpheme cannot be used as a complete utterance.

3. A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language.
The literary standard of the English language, like that of any other developed language, is not so homogeneous as it may seem. In fact the standard English literary language in the course of its development has fallen into several subsystems each of which has acquired its own peculiarities which are typical of the given functional style. The members of the language community, especially those who are sufficiently trained and responsive to language variations, recognize these styles as independent wholes. The peculiar choice of language means is primarily predetermined by the aim of the communication with the result that a more or less closed system is built up. One set of language media stands in opposition to other sets of language media with other aims, and these other sets have other choices and arrangements of language means.
What we here call functional styles are also called registers (In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an alveolar nasal (e.g. "walking", not "walkin'"), choose more formal words (e.g. father vs. dad, child vs. kid, etc.), and refrain from using contractions such as ain't, than when speaking in an informal setting.) or d i s с о u r s e s.
In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles (hence FS):
1) The language of belles-lettres.
2) The language of publicistic literature.
3) The language of newspapers.
4) The language of scientific prose.
5) The language of official documents.
As has already been mentioned, functional styles are the product of the development of the written variety of language. Each FS may be characterized by a number of distinctive features, leading or subordinate, constant or changing, obligatory or optional. Most of the FSs, however, are perceived as independent wholes due to a peculiar combination and interrelation of features common to all (especially when taking into account syntactical arrangement) with the leading ones of each FS.

Stylistically marked lexicon.
In accordance with the already-mentioned division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word-stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer.
The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer.
This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. '
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common "colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial, (non-literary) vocabulary.

Stylistic Classification of the English vocabulary.
English language is divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary

4. Neutral layer of the vocabulary.
The aspect of neutral layer is its universal character – unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of Human activity what makes the neutral layer the most stable of all.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings.
The neutral vocabulary is invariant of the Standard English vocabulary.
The neutral words are not emotionally colored, and are regarded as an abstraction, don’t mean any concreteness.
The most of English neutral word are monosyllabic.

5. The literary layer contains a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable.
The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word.
TERMS.
They are used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. They belong to the language study. They have highly conventional character. They are usually easy coined and easily accepted; new coinages is easily replaced out-date ones. One of the most characteristic feature is its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline, art to its nomenclature. A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes,directs the mind to the essential quality of the thing. The function is to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions. + Reterminalization.
ARCHAISMS
- Absolescent are in the stage of gradually passing out of general usage (pronouns: thee, thy, verb forms: thou makest/wilt, ending –(e)th instead od –(e)s he maketh)
- Obsolete – which are completely gone out of use but still recognizable (methinks – it seems to me; nay – no)
- Archaic proper - which are no longer recognizable (troth – faith, losel – lazy fellow)
- Historical words – describe institutions, customs, material objects which are no longer in use ( Thane, goblet, Mace)
Functions – creation of realistic background, in the style of official documents – terminological character, create an evaluative effect, satirical purpose.
POETICAL WORDS
- Mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim is to produce an elevated effect. (qouth – speak, eftsoon – again)
- Sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry, or satirical function, are not freely built, create by compounding.
FOREIGNISMS AND BARBARISMS
Barbarisms – of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated, have already become facts of the language, have the appearance of something alien, generally given in the body of dictionaries, it is a historical category
Foreignisms don’d belong to the English vocabulary, usually italized in the text (udarnik)

6. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or Amer¬ican dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. com¬mon "colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.
Colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones.
Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges.
The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into the neutral layer.
Synonyms of neutral words, both colloquial and literary, assume a far greater degree of concreteness.
The term literary colloquial is used to denote the vocabulary used by educated people in the course of ordinary conversation or when writing letters to intimate friends. A good sample may be found in works by a number of authors, such as J. Galsworthy, E.M. Forster, C.P. Snow, W.S. Maugham, J.B.Priestley, and others.
Familiar colloquial is more emotional and much more free and careless than literary colloquial. It is also characterised by a great number of jocular or ironical expressions and nonce-words. Low colloquial is a term used for illiterate popular speech.
It is very difficult to find hard and fast rules that help to establish the boundary between low colloquial and dialect, because in actual communication the two are often used together. Moreover, we have only the evidence of fiction to go by, and this may be not quite accurate in speech characterisation. The basis of distinction between low colloquial and the two other types of colloquial is purely social. The chief peculiarities of low colloquial concern grammar and pronunciation; as to the vocabulary, it is different from familiar colloquial in that it contains more vulgar words, and sometimes also elements of dialect. Other vocabulary layers below the level of standard educated speech are, besides low colloquial, the so-called slang and argot.
Unlike low colloquial, however, they have only lexical peculiarities. Argot should be distinguished from slang: the first term serves to denote a special vocabulary and idiom, used by a particular social or age group, especially by the so-called underworld (the criminal circles). Its main point is to be unintelligible to outsiders. The boundaries between various layers of colloquial vocabulary not being very sharply defined, it is more convenient to characterise it on the whole.
Colloquial (Conversational) Style. The main function of this style is communicative. We use this style in everyday life. There are some extra-linguistic features characteristic of this style: e.g. informality, spontaneous character of speech, interpersonal contact. When we use the colloquial style we attract gestures, different facial expression, body movements. Stylistic features of this style include: familiarity, ellipsis, concrete character of speech, interruption and logical inconsistency of the speech, emotiveness, efficacy. Secondary stylistic features may include: idiomatic and patterned character, “personal” type of speech presentation. There are oral and written varieties of this style. In it we distinguish between two forms of speech: dialogue (simple dialogue, when 2 people participate in the conversation and polylogue) and monologue. Colloquial style has substyles and genres: literary conversational style (talks, conversations, interviews), familiar-conversational style (communication between family members – mummy, daddy, granny…, friends – hey, chap!, children's talk-mummy, granny, doggy…), low colloquial (quarrels, scandal). We use non-bookish means of the language and colloquial elements on all language levels.
There are several language means peculiar colloquial style:
 graphic means. Here we find graphic signals of the change of communicative roles;
 phonetic means, such as intensive modification of sounds in fluent speech, positional phonemic interchange (in a word - at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the word, stressed or unstressed position, and so on). Positional changes: reduction or weakening of vowels in unstressed syllables and partial devoicing of consonants at the end of the word before a pause. Complete reduction: apokopa (the drop of the final consonant or final part of the word), synkopa (there is a drop of a vowel or several sounds in other positions, e.g. I`m I`ve it isn`t, and so on).
 Vocabulary means: conversational or everyday life vocabulary, wide use of non-literary vocabulary, expressive-emotional vocabulary, means of verbal imagery, wide use of stylistic devices, including pun (There isn`t a single man in the hotel);
 grammatical means: in morphology there are a lot of pronouns and particles, wide use of variety of aspect and tense forms of the verb (Present Continuos, Present Indefinite, Present Perfect), in syntax: variety in the use of communicative types of the sentence, priority of short sentences, wide use of expressive constructions (e.g. in familiar-conversational style we can use “how, when, where” with the word “ever” or with “the hell” “the devil” and so on. E.g. Why the hell do you ask?);
 compositional peculiarities: different types of dialogue (question - answer, exclamation - reply, an so on).

7. Slang 1: language peculiar to a particular group: as a: the special and often secret vocabulary used by class (as thieves, beggars) and usu. felt to be vulgar or inferior: argot; b: the jargon used by or associated with a particular trade, profession, or field of activity; 2: a non-standard vocabulary coin-posed of words and senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usu. a currency not limited to a partic¬ular region and composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties usu. experiencing quick popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse. The "New Oxford English Dictionary" defines slang as follows:"a) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of a low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type. (Now merged in c. /cant/)', b) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; c) language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense."
In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Most of the Jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incompre¬hensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code—the dictionary mean¬ing of the words. (Piou-Piou—'a French soldier, a private in the infantry'. According to Eric Partridge this word has already passed from military jargon to ordinary colloquial speech; Humrnen—a false arrest* (American); Dar—(from damned average raiser)—'a persevering and assidu¬ous student'. (University jargon); Matlo(w)—'a sailor' (from the French word 'matelof); Man and wife—'a knife' (rhyming slang); Manany—'a sailor who is always putting off a job or work' (nautical jargon) (from the Spanish word 'mamma'—4o-morrow')
Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connect¬ed by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly designate some working process or implement of labour. Professional¬isms are correlated to terms. Terms, as has already been indicated, are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality. Professionalisms are spe¬cial words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary. (tin-fish (submarine); block-buster (= a bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings); piper (=a specialist who decorates pastry with the use of a cream-pipe); a midder case (=a midwifery case); outer (=& knockout blow).
Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national lan¬guage remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is gener¬ally confined to a definite locality. We exclude here what are called social dialects or even the still looser application of the term as in ex¬pressions like poetical dialect or styles as dialects. With reference to this group there is a confusion of terms, particu¬larly between the terms dialectal, slang and vernacular. In order to ascertain the true value and the stylistic functions of dialec¬tal words it is necessary to look into their nature. (locality, breeding, education) – (lass – girl, daft – silly, hinney – honey)
The term vulgarism, as used to single out a definite group of words of non-standard English, is rather misleading. The ambiguity of the term apparently proceeds from the etymology of the word. Vulgar, as explained by the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, means a) words or names employed in ordinary speech; b) common, familiar; c) commonly current or prevalent, generally or widely disseminated. These two submeanings are the foundation of what we here name vul¬garisms. So vulgarisms are: 1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 4o hell', 'goddam' and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations; 2) obscene words. These are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of .intercourse as being indecent. Historians tell us that in Middle-JVges and down into the 16th century they were accepted in oral speech Јnd after Caxton even admitted to the printed page. All of these words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean, or in'imitation of those who use them in or¬der not to seem old-fashioned or prudish. Unfortunately in modern fiction these words have gained legitimacy. The most vulgar of them are now to be found even in good novels. This lifting of the taboo has given rise to the almost unrestrained employment of words which soil the literary language. However, they will never acquire the status of standard Eng¬lish vocabulary and will always remain on the outskirts.
The function of expletives is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.

8. Native words
An important distinctive feature which has not been discussed so far in this book is that of origin. According to this feature the word-stock may be subdivided into two main sets. The elements of one are native, the elements of the other are borrowed.
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A loan word, borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language.
The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into those of the Indo-European stock and those of Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. It has been noticed that they readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun, moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone, tree-, names of animals and birds: bull,cat, crow, goose, wolf; parts of the human body: arm, ear, eye, foot, heart,etc. Some of the most frequent verbs are also of Indo-European common stock: bear, come, sit, stand and others. The adjectives of this group denote concrete physical properties: hard, quick, slow, red, white. Most numerals also belong here.
A much bigger part of this native vocabulary layer is formed by words of the Common Germanic stock, i.e. of words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic, etc., but none in Russian or French. It contains a greater number of semantic groups. The following list may serve as an illustration of their general character. The nouns are: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, shop, room, coat, iron, lead, cloth, hat, shirt, shoe, care, evil, hope, life, need, rest; the verbs are bake, bum, buy, drive, hear, keep, learn, make, meet, rise, see, send, shoot and many more; the adjectives are: broad, dead, deaf, deep. Many adverbs and pronouns also belong to this layer.
Together with the words of the common Indo-European stock these Common Germanic words form the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of speech. They constitute no less than 80% of the 500 most frequent words listed by E.L. Thorndike and I.Lorge.
Words belonging to the subsets of the native word-stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy; they are often monosyllabic, show great word-building power and enter a number of set expressions.
For example, watch

9. BORROWINGS
Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characterisitic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.
English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native words.
English continues to take in foreign words , but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundunt as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a «giving» language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century.
Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:
a) according to the aspect which is borrowed,
b) according to the degree of assimilation,
c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed.
(In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French, Italian. Spanish, German and Russian.)
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT
There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, morphemic borrowings.
Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme ) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» ( French), «living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German «masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman».
Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар» , «подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the meaning «выкуп за жену».
Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word was borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into English, e.g. «brigade» was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning «a working collective«,»бригада». This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word «pioneer».
Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess», «beautiful» etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION
The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.
Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).
Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, cf the French word «sport» and the native word «start». Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one.
Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing «sputnik» is used in English only in one of its meanings.
Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc.
b) borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, genius - genii etc.
c) borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ ( loss - lose, life - live ). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph «sh», e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization , e.g. German, child.
Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard.
d) borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greak borrowings «y» can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), «ph» denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), «ch» denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),«ps» denotes the sound /s/ (psychology).
Latin borrowings retain their polisyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative).
French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings : beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge.
Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. «a» is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), «u» is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), «au» is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), «ei» is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. «s» before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), «v» is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), «w» is pronounced as /v/ , «ch» is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen).
Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc.
Celtic borrowings
5th A. D. Several Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended but lost=> retreated to the North and South-West. Through their numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod. E. bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, bills, etc. The Germanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and features of their territory remained Celtic. For instance, the names of the rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning "river" and "water". Even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn + dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for "river" and dun stands for "a fortified hill", the meaning of the whole being "fortress on the hill over the river". Some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, among them such widely-used words as street (Lat. strata via) and wall (Lat. vallum).
Moors – boloto, wiski- water in kelt, car (cardiv) castle, coil – forest, loch-lake, bun- kind of bread, skirt, kilt
Latin
55 BC - Caesar
Food: peer, pepper, pound, milk, beat, sirel, wine. Burgen, campus(camp), vallum(wall), vinum(wine), portus(port), street, grinwitch, woolwitch.
Church: devil, scholl, apostal, christ, saint, pope, bishorp.Animals/plants: tiger, plant, oil, palm, rose, elephant. instruments:folk, spade, sickle, History, noon, mill, days of weak.
The seventh century A. D. This century was significant for the christianisation of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin. Also, these new Latin borrowings were very different in meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals. E. g. priest (Lai. presbyter), bishop (Lai. episcopus), monk (Lat. monachus), nun (Lai. nonna), candle (Lai. candela).
Additionally, in a class of their own were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowings, for the first schools in England were church schools, and the first teachers priests and monks. So, the very word school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. schola, of Greek origin) and so are such words as scholar (Lai. scholar(-is) and magister (Lat. ma-gister).
7th A. D. Acceptance of Christianity - Latin was the official language of the Christian church, => a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin, very different in meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals. E. g. priest (Lai. presbyter), bishop (Lai. episcopus), monk (Lat. monachus), nun (Lai. nonna), candle (Lai. candela). + educational terms (church schools). school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. schola, of Greek origin), scholar (Lai. scholar(-is) and magister. Food: peer, pepper, pound, milk, beat, sirel, wine. Burgen, campus(camp), vallum(wall), vinum(wine), portus(port), street, grinwitch, woolwitch.
Church: devil, scholl, apostal, christ, saint, pope, bishorp.Animals/plants: tiger, plant, oil, palm, rose, elephant. instruments:folk, spade, sickle, History, noon, mill, days of weak
Late.
Adjectives:
-ant, ent-important
-al, dental
-ar-popular
-ior, or- major
Verbs:
-ute-conclude
-ete-complete
-ct-select
-ate-create
They usualy came through French Prefixes:
-ad-admit
-de-denote
-ex-explain
-con-convince
The degree of adjectives:major, supirior
1. sience: noun, verb, conjuction, numeral
2. ling: phonetics, lin-cs, lexicology, case, number
3. directly taken: visa-virsa, nb, homosapies, lingva
GREEK
1. k- architacture, diachrinic
2. f- telephone, phenomenon, phrasiologe
3. i: symbol, syllible
4. z: zero, zerox
A great many Greek words introduced into English came in chiefly through the medium of Latin, for the Latin language itself was largely indebted to Greek. Borrowings from Greek like those from Latin go back to an early period. These are mostly bookish borrowings. Here are a few of the hundreds of Greek terms used in modern medicine: adenoids,pediatrics, psychiatry, psychoanalysis. Greek borrowings were more or less latinized in form. They are spelt and pronounced not as in Greek but as the Romans spelt and pronounced them. Among numerous Greek borrowings in the English vocabulary we find the following: analysis,botany,comed,ydemocrat,democracy, dialogue, philosophy,problem,rhythm. Quite a number of proper names are also Greek in origin, e. g. George, Eugene, Helenw, Sophie, Peter, Nicholas, Theodor. Here are some loan-words which linguistics owes to Greek: antonym, dialect, etymology, euphemism, homonym, metaphor, metonymy, neologism, polysemy,synonym, etc. A lot of English terms In rhetoric and grammar originated in Greece. The punctuation mark called a comma originates from the Greek word. There are numerous English compounds coined from such Greek roots, as: autos - self, chroma - colour, ge - earth, logos - discourse, phone - voice, e.g. autograph, geography, geology, phonograph, telegraph, telephone.
CONTACTS WITH
French- attache, etiquette, caprir, ballet, ensemble, machine
Italian- scenario, cartoon, fresco, concorto, opers, gondola, lagoon, grotto, balcony
Spain – armada, parade, castanet, matador
Portuguesse- verandah
Dutch- sketch, easel, cruise
Indian: alligator, cacao, potato, tomato
The scandinavian borrowings in the english vocabulary.
The Danish invasion in 878 resulted in the occupation of a great part of the country. The effect of the Danish conquest was a contribution of many Scandinavian words in the english vocabulary. Scandimavian words were borrowed most freely between the 9th and 12th century. It is supposed that the Scandinavian element in Modern English amounts to 650 root-words. Scandinavian loan-words denote objects and actions of the most commonplace description and do not represent any new set of ideas hither to unknown to the people adopting them. We find here such everyday words as: (n) bull, cake, crop, egg, fellow, guest, kid, root, sky, sister, window; (adj) flat, low, mean, odd, wrong; (v) call, die, get, give, scream, scrape, take, want. Scand. borrowings are numerous is geographical place names in Northern England, such as: Braithwaite, Whitby. Scand. elements survive in such hybrid compounds as: lawful, lawless, greyhound. It is of interest to note that there are words in the english vocabulary that exist side by side for a long time, sometimes for centuries, two slightly different forms for the same word, one the original english form and the other scandinavian. (whole - hale, from - fro, shirt - skirt, shot - scot, true - trig, neat, tidy).
Wind+auza-winows, fe+lawe-fellow. Byr-village(derby-vallage of dear, kirby, holmby), dale-plane (avondale, danesdale), gate- way(newsgate), holm(home)-island-holmby, longholm, thorp-farm(carthorp)
1. then, them, both, their
2. niman-to take,sweltan-to die, swestor-sister
3. new meaning. bread was any kind of food, stuff-to die, dream-to sleep.
4. sk – skate, skill, skirt(in eng was palatalization- ship)
5. fisc-fish
6. jetan-to get, y- yet, yeild – began to be spelled in one letter.
7. k- kettle, key.
French borrowings
9-15-early period
14-20late period
1066. With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social, political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi-lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings. Meals, art/entertaiment,family, professions(trade, painter, maison)
Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power.
Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e. g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.
-ard, avangard
-cy, tendency
-ate, comunoicate
-able, readable.
Shift of stress(changed): courage.
Early french b took all grammatical categories.
Late:
1. stress on the last sbl
2. Ch is pronounced like ch: chef, champaigne
3. g- garage, rouge, regime…bridge, edge, badge
4. mute ending: ballet, banque, restaurant.
5. The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant once more were French borrowings. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, technique, bourgeois, etc.

10. Loan words. The term loan-word is equivalent to borrowing. Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. By translation-loans we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation.
Assimilation of borrowings. Assimilation is the process of change that a borrowed word undergoes while being adopted to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic structure of the host language:
1) Phonetic — includes changes in sound-form and in stress (царь-tzar); or they just simplified (psychology-Greek). In Old English the stress was always on the first syllable of the root (reason-French).
2) Grammatical — the acquisition of new grammatical forms on analogy with other English words (sputnik, kindergarten)
3) Lexical — usually means the development of new senses in the borrowed word (discus -> disc -> dish, to move). There, are 543 pairs of doublets.
Assimilation is the process and we should mind that it has different stages:
1. complete — words undistinguished from native words(cheese, happy,old, street, husband).
2. partial:
• not assimilated phonetically – special sounds, stress(police, garage, soprano, sonato)
• not assimilated grammatically – some nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek which preserves their plural form (datum-data)
• not assimilated semantically – these words denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed(sari, sombrero, kvass, pizza, tzar, ruble)
• not assimilated graphically – letter y in the middle, ph[f], ch[k], x z j in the initial position
3. non-assimilated words (barbarisms)– belong to the English language but not assimilated in any way and for which there are corresponding English equivalents(ad-lib, ciao, tet-a-tet)

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[Don Fabregas]

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[#Lexi#]

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